Taoism
Taoism, is a philosophical or religious tradition of origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the ( |p=Dào|l=the Way}}, ). The Tao is a fundamental idea in most schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists. Taoism differs from by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order, but is similar in the sense that it is a teaching about the various disciplines for achieving "perfection" by becoming one with the unplanned rhythms of the universe called "the way" or "dao". Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasize (action without intention), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the : "compassion", "frugality", and "humility". The roots of Taoism go back at least to the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the (Naturalists), and was deeply influenced by one of the oldest texts of Chinese culture, the , which expounds a philosophical system about how to keep human behavior in accordance with the alternating cycles of nature. The " " (c. 400 – c. 337 BCE) may also have been a major influence, expounding a of wu wei. The , a compact book containing teachings attributed to ( ), is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later . Taoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries, and ( , "masters of the Tao"), a title traditionally attributed only to the clergy and not to their lay followers, usually take care to note distinction between their ritual tradition and the practices of and non-Taoist , which are often mistakenly identified as pertaining to Taoism. (especially ), , , several , , , and many styles of have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia. Today, the Taoist tradition is one of the as well as the , and although it does not travel readily from its n roots, it claims adherents in a number of societies, in particular in , , and in . Definition . Philosophers of Taoism are marked by triangles in dark green.}} Spelling and pronunciation Since the introduction of the system for Mandarin Chinese, there have been those who have felt that "Taoism" would be more appropriately spelled as "Daoism". The pronunciation for the word }} ("way, path") is spelled as in the older romanization system (from which the spelling 'Taoism' is derived), while it is spelled as in the newer romanization system (from which the spelling 'Daoism' is derived). Both the Wade–Giles tao4 and the Pinyin dào are intended to be pronounced identically in Mandarin Chinese (like the 'd' in 'dog'), but despite this fact, "Taoism" and "Daoism" can be pronounced differently in English vernacular. Categorization The word "Taoism" is used to translate different Chinese terms which refer to different aspects of the same tradition and semantic field: # "Taoist religion" ( |p= }}; lit. "teachings of the Tao"), or the "liturgical" aspect – A family of organized religious movements sharing concepts or terminology from "Taoist philosophy"; the first of these is recognized as the school. # "Taoist philosophy" ( |p= }}; lit. "school or family of the Tao") or "Taology" ( ; lit. "learning of the Tao"), or the "mystical" aspect – The based on the texts of the , the (or Daodejing, ) and the ( ). These texts were linked together as "Taoist philosophy" during the early , but notably not before. It is unlikely that was familiar with the text of the Daodejing, and Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist as this classification did not arise until well after his death. However, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars. It is contested by (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of the different Taoist schools, sects and movements. Taoism does not fall under an umbrella or a definition of a single like the ; nor can it be studied as a mere variant of , as although the two share some similar concepts, much of Chinese folk religion is separate from the tenets and core teachings of Taoism. The sinologists Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." Chung-ying Cheng, a Chinese philosopher, views Taoism as a religion that has been embedded into Chinese history and tradition. "Whether Confucianism, Daoism, or later Chinese Buddhism, they all fall into this pattern of thinking and organizing and in this sense remain religious, even though individually and intellectually they also assume forms of philosophy and practical wisdom." Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Daoist view of heaven flows mainly from "observation and meditation, though the teaching of the way (dao) can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature". In Chinese history, the three religions of Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism stand on their own independent views, and yet are "involved in a process of attempting to find harmonization and convergence among themselves, so that we can speak of a 'unity of three religious teaching' (sanjiao heyi)". The term "Taoist", and Taoism as a "liturgical framework" Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. "Taoist", in Western , is traditionally used to translate daoshi ( , "master of the Tao"), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skills for the benefit of a community. This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate in The Taoist Body (1986). Daoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist fashi ( , "ritual masters") of vernacular traditions (the so-called " ") within Chinese religion. The term dàojiàotú ( ), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion. History .}} is traditionally regarded as one of the founders of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with "original" or "primordial" Taoism. Whether he actually existed is disputed; however, the work attributed to him—the Tao Te Ching—is dated to the late 4th century BCE. Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the (in the form of its main elements— and the ), which developed during the (4th to 3rd centuries BC). Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: # Philosophical Taoism, i.e. the and # techniques for achieving ecstasy # practices for achieving longevity or immortality # exorcism. Some elements of Taoism may be traced to folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition. In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring-States-era phenomena of the (connected to the ) and the fangshi (which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity, one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even though later Taoists insisted that this was not the case. Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the case of the wu, "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation. The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists, and relied much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities. , one of the Taoism sacred places.}} The first organized form of Taoism, the (Celestial Masters') school (later known as Zhengyi school), developed from the movement at the end of the 2nd century CE; the latter had been founded by , who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142. The Tianshi school was officially recognized by ruler in 215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE. By the (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organizations and orders of ritualists in the state of (modern ). In earlier ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life. Zhuangzi was the best known of these, and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was part of local traditions. Female shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of . Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism, but absorbed basic shamanic elements. Shamans revealed basic texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century. Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in more recent times are conventionally grouped into two main branches: and . After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the —which was published at the behest of the . Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was nominated several times as a . After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor. Taoism, in form of the , gained official status in China again during the (618–907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative. The Shangqing movement, however, had developed much earlier, in the 4th century, on the basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 and 370. Between 397 and 402, compiled a series of scriptures which later served as the foundation of the , which unfolded its greatest influence during the (960–1279). Several Song emperors, most notably , were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang. In the 12th century, the Quanzhen School was founded in . It flourished during the 13th and 14th century and during the became the largest and most important Taoist school in Northern China. The school's most revered master, , met with in 1222 and was successful in influencing the Khan towards exerting more restraint during his brutal conquests. By the Khan's decree, the school also was exempt from taxation. Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the school, which eventually became Imperial for state bureaucratic purposes under the (1368–1644). During the (1644–1912), however, due to discouragements of the government, many people favored Confucian and Buddhist classics over Taoist works. During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books. By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism went through many catastrophic events.(As a result, only one complete copy of the still remained, at the in Beijing). Today, Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the People's Republic of China. The government regulates its activities through the . Taoism is freely practiced in , where it claims millions of adherents. and are thought to be among the birthplaces of Taoism. Doctrines Ethics Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the and , such as naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity, , and most important of all, . However, the concepts of those keystone texts cannot be equated with Taoism as a whole. Tao and Te , , .}} Tao ( ) literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road, channel, path, doctrine, or line. In Taoism, it is "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course." It has variously been denoted as the "flow of the universe", a "conceptually necessary ground", or a demonstration of nature. The Tao also is something that individuals can find in themselves. The active expression of Tao is called Te (also spelled—and pronounced—''De'', or even Teh; often translated with Virtue or Power; ), in a sense that Te results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao. Wu-wei The ambiguous term wu-wei ( ) constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism. Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are "nonaction", "effortless action" or "action without intent". The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": "action without action". In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature. Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the , proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that harmony and may more likely result rather than the willed outcome. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe. Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly. "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction." Ziran Ziran ( ; lit. "self-such"，" ") is regarded as a central value in Taoism. It describes the "primordial state" of all things as well as a basic character of the Tao, and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity. To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao; this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity. An often cited metaphor for naturalness is ( |t= |p=pǔ, pú|w=p'u}}; lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved block", which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual. It is usually referred to as a state one returns to. Three Treasures The Taoist Three Treasures or Three Jewels ( ) comprise the basic virtues of ci ( , usually translated as compassion), jian ( , usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian ( , literally "not daring to act as first under the heavens", but usually translated as humility). As the "practical, political side" of Taoist philosophy, translated them as "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority". The Three Treasures can also refer to , and ( ; jing is usually translated with "essence" and shen with "spirit"). These terms are elements of the , which shares its cosmological foundation— or the Naturalists—with Taoism. Within this framework, they play an important role in ("Taoist Inner Alchemy"). Cosmology Taoist cosmology ; relativity, evolution and 'extremes meet' are main characters. It shares similar views with the (Yinyang) which was headed by (305–240 BCE). The school's tenets harmonized the concepts of the (Five Elements) and . In this spirit, the universe is seen as being in a constant process of re-creating itself, as everything that exists is a mere aspect of , which, "condensed, becomes life; diluted, it is indefinite potential". Qi is in a perpetual transformation between its condensed and diluted state. These two different states of qi, on the other hand, are embodiments of the abstract entities of yin and yang, two complementary extremes that constantly play against and with each other and cannot exist without the other. Human beings are seen as a of the universe, and for example comprise the Wu Xing in form of the organs. As a consequence, it is believed that deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself. Theology Taoism can be defined as , given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of . This is one of the core beliefs that nearly all the sects share. Taoist orders usually present the at the top of the pantheon of deities, visualizing the hierarchy emanating from the Tao. (Laojun, "Lord Lao"), is considered the incarnation of one of the Three Purities and worshipped as the ancestor of the philosophical doctrine. Different branches of Taoism often have differing pantheons of lesser deities, where these deities reflect different notions of cosmology. Lesser deities also may be promoted or demoted for their activity. Some varieties of popular Chinese religion incorporate the , derived from the main of the Three Purities, as a representation of the most high God. Persons from the history of Taoism, and people who are considered to have become immortals ( ), are venerated as well by both clergy and laypeople. Despite these hierarchies of deities, traditional conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western . Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example, the Hindu sense. Texts ''Tao Te Ching'' The Tao Te Ching or Daodejing is widely considered the most influential Taoist text. According to legend, it was written by , and often the book is simply referred to as the "Laozi." However, authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate, and will probably never be known with certainty. The earliest texts of the Tao Te Ching that have been excavated (written on ) date back to the late 4th century BCE. Throughout the history of religious Taoism, the has been used as a ritual text. The famous opening lines of the are: ( ) "The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao" ( ) "The name that can be named is not the eternal name." There is significant, at times acrimonious, debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferable, and which particular translation methodology is best. The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference. The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be ineffable, and accomplishing great things through small means. Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE. Other important commentaries include the one from and the . ''Zhuangzi'' The ( ), named after its traditional author , is a composite of writings from various sources, and is generally considered the most important of all Taoist writings. The commentator (c. CE 300) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist thought. The traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters") and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the "outer" and "miscellaneous" chapters). The work uses anecdotes, parables and dialogues to express one of its main themes, that is aligning oneself to the laws of the natural world and "the way" of the elements. ''I Ching'' The , or Yijing, was originally a divination system that had its origins around 1150 BCE Although it predates the first mentions of Tao as an organised system of philosophy and religious practice, this text later became of philosophical importance to Daoism and Confucianism. The I Ching itself, shorn of its commentaries, consists of 64 combinations of 8 trigrams (called "hexagrams"), traditionally chosen by throwing coins or yarrow sticks, to give the diviner some idea of the situation at hand and, through reading of the "changing lines", some idea of what is developing. The 64 original notations of the hexagrams in the I Ching can also be read as a meditation on how change occurs, so it assists Taoists with managing cycles as Laozi advocated in the Tao Te Ching (the oldest known version of this text was dated to 400 BCE). More recently as recorded in the 18th century, the Taoist master continued to advocate this usage. ''Daozang'' The Daozang ( , Treasury of Tao) is also referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally compiled during the , , and dynasties. The version surviving today was published during the . The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 . Following the example of the Buddhist , it is divided into three dong ( , "caves", "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest": # The ("real" or "truth" ) grotto. Includes the texts. # The Xuan ("mystery" ) grotto. Includes the scriptures. # The ("divine" ) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan ( ) revelations. Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student. The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality. Other texts While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other important texts in traditional Taoism. ("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and s, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries. It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened lives. Symbols and images depicting a surrounded by the .}} The ( ; commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol" or simply the "yin yang") and the ("Eight Trigrams") have importance in Taoist symbolism. In this cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy, organized into the cycles of Yin and Yang and formed into objects and lives. Yin is the receptive and Yang is the active principle, seen in all forms change and difference such as the annual season cycles, the landscape, sexual coupling, the formation of both men and women as characters, and sociopolitical history. While almost all Taoist organizations make use of it, one could also regard it as Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. One can see this symbol as a decorative element on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to Song dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century CE. Previously, a tiger and a dragon had symbolized yin and yang. Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, bringing good fortune, increasing life span, etc. Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves. A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the (or the Bushel, the Chinese equivalent). In the of the 2nd millennium BCE, Chinese thought regarded the Big Dipper as a deity, while during the , it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi. Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature and made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix representing yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl, which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a . In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture lacks universal features that distinguish it from other structures. Practices Rituals , a in , . There are elements of the religious practice ( and offerings).}} At ancient times, before Daoism Religion was founded, food may be set out as a to the spirits of the deceased or the gods. This may include slaughtered animals, such as pigs and ducks, or fruit. The Daoist rejected food and animal sacrifices to the Gods. He tore apart temples which demanded animal sacrifice and drove away its priests. Nowadays Daoism Temples are still not allowed to use animal sacrifices. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of , or , on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones. The joss paper is mostly used when memorizing ancestors, such as time of . Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include s and s; human-occupied puppets (often of the " " and " "), -practicing and s carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question. —including , , and other forms of —has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. is also widely encountered in some sects. There is an academic and social distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as tongji) and the spirit-writing that is typically practiced through . Physical cultivation , Illustrated Manual of External Medicine)}} A recurrent and important element of Taoism are rituals, exercises and substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, at undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, or at improving physical health and thereby extending one's life, ideally to the point of immortality. Enlightened and immortal beings are referred to as . A characteristic method aiming for longevity is . Already in very early Taoist scriptures—like the and the —alchemical formulas for achieving immortality were outlined. A number of martial arts traditions, particularly the ones falling under the category of (like , and ) embody Taoist principles to a significant extent, and some practitioners consider their art a means of practicing Taoism. Society Adherents in Beijing}} The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining Taoism. According to a survey of in the year 2010, the number of people practicing some form of is near to 950 million (70% of the Chinese). Among these, 173 million (13%) claim an affiliation with Taoist practices. Further in detail, 12 million people claim to be "Taoists", a term traditionally used exclusively for initiates, priests and experts of Taoist rituals and methods. Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist traditions. Since the creation of the People's Republic of China, its government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in codified settings. In 1956, the was formed to administer the activities of all registered Taoist orders, and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded during the under , but was re-established in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the Baiyunguan, or of , belonging to the branch of Quanzhen Taoism. Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, both belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools, and clergy has been resumed. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of , , and . Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In 7.5 million people (33% of the population) identify themselves as Taoists. Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of and show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists. Followers of Taoism are also present in Chinese emigre communities outside Asia. In addition, it has attracted followers with no Chinese heritage. For example, in Brazil there are Taoist temples in Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro which are affiliated with the Daoist Society of China. Membership of these temples is entirely of non-Chinese ancestry. Art and poetry , a Taoist-influenced 13th-century Chinese painting by the monk, .}} Throughout Chinese history there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoist thought. Notable painters influenced by Taoism include , , , , , , T'ang Mi, and Wang Tseng-tsu. Taoist arts represents the diverse regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy, however scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves. Political aspects Daoism never had a unified political theory. While Huang-Lao positions justified a strong emperor as the legitimate ruler, the "primitivists" (like in the chapters 8-11 of the Zhuangzi) argued in strongly for a radical anarchism. A more moderate position is presented in the Inner Chapters of the Zhuangzi in which the political life is presented with disdain and some kind of pluralism or perspectivism is preferred. The syncretist position in texts like the Huainanzi and some Outer Chapters of the Zhuangzi blended some Daoist positions with Confucian ones. Relations with other religions and philosophies , Taoism, and are one'', a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, .}} Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to . The philosophical terms Dao and De are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism. explicitly criticized Confucian and tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucian emphasis on , hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors "naturalness", spontaneity, and individualism instead. The entry of into China was marked by significant interaction and with Taoism. Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary. Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism, like and , knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts. Taoism especially shaped the development of Buddhism, introducing elements like the concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment". , a with the combination of three religions: Taoism, , and .}} Taoism on the other hand also incorporated Buddhist elements during the , such as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organization. Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another. For example, , one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Laozi (and the ), was a Confucian. The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously. This became institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the school. Some authors have dealt with between Taoism and . This has been of interest for students of such as , among others. The comparison of the teachings of Laozi and has been done by several authors such as Martin Aronson, and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that they have parallels that should not be ignored. In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto the main difference is that Christianity preaches a while Taoism does not. Yet, a number of authors, including , have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of these religions are similar. In neighboring Vietnam, Taoist values have been shown to adapt to social norms and formed emerging socio-cultural beliefs together with Confucianism. References Category:Religion